Inglese

A Puritan Age

Civil War (1642-l651) broke out in England as a result of the clashes between Charles I and Parliament. The Civil war was the focal point of the century: it ended with the victory for the Roundheads (Cromwell's supporters) over the Cavaliers (the king's supporters). Despite some opposition from several more moderate members of Parliament, Charles I was beheaded in 1649, the monarchy was abolished and a Commonwealth was created in which State and Church became one.

The Commonwealth Republic

The term Commonwealth was used by the reformers to denote the form of government they wished to estabilish. The Commonwealth Republic that was created lasted from the execution of Charles I in 1649 to the restoration of the king (Charles II) in 1660. During this period England was subjected to the severe rule of the Puritans whose religious spirit would admit no toleration. A gloomy atmosphere enveloped English society. Not content with the work of the Commonwealth Parliament, Oliver Cromwell, the great Puritan leader abolished Parliament (1653) and rules as "Lord Protector". What resulted was a dictatorship. Towards the end of this period it became obvious that Oliver Cromwell's son and successor, Richard, was incapable of ruling as Protector with the same competence as his father, who had died in 1658. Tired of Puritan rule, Parliament recalled Charles I's son (who had escaped to France) back to England. The people too were tired of the severe despotism of the Puritans and welcomed the return of the monarchy in the person of Charles II. The return of the monarchy under Charles II is referred to as the Restoration.

Puritan literature

The influence of the political situation on the life of the country is reflected in the literature of the time. Poets were even grouped according to their political sympathies: there were poets, the followers of Jonson, who were knows as the Cavaliers poets on account of their sympathy for the king; and others, the greatest of whom  was Milton, who, on account of their affillation to the Puritan cause and support of Cromwell, were called the Roundhead poets. The struggle for change and the break up of previously existing values, evident in the political and social events of the time, were also apparent in the literary movements preferred during the Commonwealth period. Two groups in particular indicate the changes brought about by the victory of Cromwell and the Puritan cause. The metaphysical poets with their rational and intellectualised poetry, and writers like Milton and Bunyan reflected the stern attitude of the Puritan psyche and ethos then domination the country.

The religious influence

The 17^th century was a time dominated by both religious and political controversy. The religious quarrels in particular produced ardent defenders of their faith - both Anglican and Puritan - and effected the content and forms of literary production. It was a time of great preachers, of mystics and of sacred poetry. Above all, it was the period of the Bible. The Authorised Version had an enormous influence not only on the lives of the Protestants and, above all, of the Puritans for whom it represented a Book of Law, but also on the development of the English language and English prose forms on account of its concrete, economic and solemn style. Milton and Bunyan in particular were greatly influenced by the Bible.

John Milton

Milton's life

John Milton (1608 - 1674) is the literary personality of the 17^th century. His great learning and poetic ability found expression in his work, Paradise Lost. Milton was born into a London family. After studying at St. Paul's, he entered Cambridge where he first began to develop his literary talents writing poetry on sacred themes in Latin, Italian and English. After finishing his university he began private study of Greek and Latin Literature. For two years (1637 - 1639), Milton travelled abroad, mostly in Italy, where he met Galileo. On his return to England, he thought of writing an epic on the Arthurian theme. His literary ambitions were interrupted by the events of the Puritan revolution, of which he was an ardent supporter. During this period his time was spent on writing political pamphlets and talking part in political activities. He engaged in a tireless defence of religious, civil and domestic liberties taking an active part in the Commonwealth by becoming Cromwell's Latin secretary. After the Restoration however, his public life was finisced and, following a period of imprisonment, he retired to private life where he wrote Paradise Lost.

Milton and the Puritan age

The Puritan age was a period in which the fantasy and imagination of the Tudor and early Stuart times was gradually burning itself out under the pressures of the puritying religious reformers. A new epoch of enlightenment and scientific discovery was developing in which the ambiguity, sophistication and ornament of the Tudors and the sensual and intellectualised wit of the metamphysicalpoets was out of place. A new attitude was gradually growing in the literary scene that called for clarity, discipline and balance. The undisciplined individualism, characteristic of the way social and political problems were faced up till the time of the early Stuarts, was gradually giving way to a sense of order and of behaviour based on common sense and rationality for the common good. In this sense Milton was a man of the age: a committed interrupted for more than twenty years his great literary dream of writing an epic.

A learned man

Milton was a learned man with a very extensive knowledge of Greek, Latin and their respective literatures. His Italian poems, l'Allegro and Il Penseroso (1632), written on his return to his father's home, we see more clearly his temperament which was that of a lonely man with a propension towards contemplation and solitude. In all his early works, his learning is well in evidence as is his capacity to synthesize or blend together classical mythology, English folklore, and medieval romance. It was only in the early part of his literary career that Milton expressed the lighter side of his character. He even wrote two masques, Arcades (1633) and Comus (1634), for the local aristocracy which, although written along the lines of the Jonsonian masque, contain something of the freshness and aristocratic grace of the Elizabethians.

A committed Puritan

Milton was uncompromisingly concerned with moral truth and justice and for this reason he identified himself with the Puritan cause. His political leanings were towards an oligarchic republic that would lead to the creation of the "community of saints" that was so dear to the Puritans. Milton was no blind fanatic. He had no problem about condemning the Puritans when they took measures requiring all books to be censored. For this reason he wrote his Areoitica (1644) in defence of the freedom of the press. Milton, therefore, was no orthodox Puritan. His acute sense of justice and of freedom of the individual also prompted him to deal with theological matters when his unfortunate experience of marriage led him to write The Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce (1643). He used the Bible as his authoritative source to justify the abolition of the existing marriage laws. During his period of political activity he dedicated very little time towards real literary production. He wrote a few sonnets, some of which reflected his attitude towards certain contemporary events such as One the Late Massacre in Piedmont. However, his removal from public life after the Restoration gave him the possibility of settling down and writing the great epic he knew he had the qualities for and for which he had so long prepared himself.

Paradise Lost

BOOK I   

A brief introduction mentions the fall of Adam and Eve caused by the serpent, which was Satan, who led the angels in revolt against God and was cast into hell. The scene then opens on Satan lying dazed in the burning lake, with Beelzebub, next in command, beside him. Satan assembles his fallen legions on the shore, where he revives their spirits by his speech. They set to building a palace, called Pandemonium. There the high ranking angels assemble in council.

BOOK II A debate is held whether or not to attempt recovery of heaven. A third proposal is preferred, concerning an ancient prophecy of another world which was to be created, where the devils may seek to enact their revenge. Satan alone undertakes the voyage to find this world. He encounters Sin and Death, his offspring, guarding hell's gates. Sin unlocks the gate, and Satan embarks on his passage across the great gulf of chaos between heaven and hell, till he sights the new universe floating near the larger globe which is heaven.

BOOK III

God sees Satan flying towards this world and foretells the success of his evil mission to tempt man. God explains his purpose of grace and mercy toward man, but declares that justice must be met nonetheless. His Son, who sits at his right hand, freely offers to sacrifice himself for man's salvation, causing the angels to celebrate in songs of praise. Meanwhile Satan alights upon the outer shell of the new creation, where he finds an opening to the universe within. He flies down to the sun, upon which an angel, Uriel, stands guard. Diguised as a cherub, Satan pretends he has come to praise God's new creation, and thereby tricks the angel into showing him the way to man's home

BOOK IV 

Landing atop Mt. Niphates, Satan experiences dissillusionment, but soon proceeds on his evil errand. He easily gains secret entrance to the Garden of Paradise. He wonders at its beauty, and soon comes upon Adam and Eve, who excite great envy in him at their happy state. He overhears them speak of God's commandment that they should not eat the fruit of the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil under penalty of death, and thereby plots to cause them to transgress. Uriel, becoming suspicious, comes to warn Gabriel and his angels, who are guarding the gate of Paradise. That evening, two scouts sent by Gabriel find Satan whispering in the ear of Eve as she sleeps next to her husband. The scouts apprehend and bring Satan to Gabriel who banishes him from Eden.

BOOK V

Next morning, Eve relates to Adam a troublesome dream, and is comforted by him. God sends the angel Raphael to visit the couple to warn them of their enemy. The angel arrives and dines with them, then relates to them the history of Satan's fall: how jealousy against the Son of God led him to incite all those in his charge to rebel against God, and how one angel, Abdiel, resisted and remained faithful to God.

BOOK VI 

Raphael continues to relate how Michael was sent to lead the faithful angels into battle against Satan (then called Lucifer) and his army. Wounded and in dissaray, Satan and his powers retreat. During the night they invent weapons resembling cannons. When, in the second day's ht, Michael's angels are confronted with these devilish devices, they become enraged and pull up the very mountains and hurl them at Satan's crew. But the war continues into the third day, when God sends Messiah, his Son, to end the war. Riding forth in his flaming chariot, Messiah drives the rebels out of heaven and down into hell.

BOOK VII 

Raphael then relates to Adam how God sent his Son to create a new world and new creatures to fill the place left by the fallen angels. The six days of creation are described.

BOOK VIII 

Adam, desiring to extend the pleasurable visit with the angel, relates to Raphael what he remembers of his own creation, his first impressions of the world and its creatures, the Garden of Eden, and his first meeting and marriage to Eve. After repeating his warnings to Adam, the angel departs.

BOOK IX 

Satan returns to earth, where he chooses the serpent as his best disguise. Next morning, when Adam and Eve go forth to their gardening tasks, Eve suggests they go in separate directions. With great reservation, Adam finally consents. The serpent finds Eve alone and approaches her. She is surprised to find the creature can speak, and is soon induced by him to eat the fruit of the forbidden tree. Adam is horrified when he finds what she has done, but at length resignes himself to share her fate rather than be left without her, and eats the fruit also. After eating, they are aroused with lust and lay together, then fall to restless sleep. They waken to awareness of their nakedness and shame, and cover themselves with leaves. In their emotional distress, they fall into mutual accusations and blame.

BOOK X 

The guardian angels return to heaven, sad for man's failure, and the Son of God descends to earth to judge the sinners. Mercifully, he delays their sentence of death many days, during which they may work to regain God's favor. Then, in pity, he clothes them both. At the gates of hell, Sin and Death sense the success of Satan in this new world. They set out to build a highway over chaos to make future passage to earth easier. Satan meets them on his return voyage to hell, and marvels at the great structure. Upon his arrival in Pandemonium, Satan boasts of his success to the assembly. Instead of applauding him, they can only hiss, for they and he have all been turned into snakes, their punishment from above. God instructs his angels what changed conditions must prevail in the world, now in fallen state, while on earth, Adam bemoans his miserable condition and the fate of the human race. He harshly rejects Eve's attempt to console him, but she persists and wins his forgiveness. She proposes they commit suicide, but Adam reminds her of God's promise that her seed should wreak vengeance upon the serpent. Moreover, they must seek to make peace with their offended Lord.

BOOK XI

God sends Michael and his band to expel the sinning pair from Paradise, but first to reveal to Adam future events, resulting from his sin. The angel descends to Eden with the news of their expulsion, causing Eve to withdraw in tears. Michael leads Adam up a high hill, where he sets before him in visions what shall happen till the Great Flood.

BOOK XII 

Michael continues in prophecy from the flood by degrees to explain who the Seed of woman shall be, the Savior which was promised, who shall redeem mankind. Adam is recomforted by these last revelations and resolves faithful obedience. He descends the hill with Michael and rejoins Eve, who is wakened from gentle sleep, reconfirmed in allegence to her husband. A flaming sword is placed to bar the gates behind them, as Adam and Eve are sent away from Paradise.